Human and Environment

Introduction

Human and Environment is a course titled for the EESD, M.Ed. program of Kathmandu University, Nepal. The course has aimed at giving the students extensive information regarding all dimensions of human and environment interactions. It covers biological, cultural and economical aspects of human and their relationship with the environment. The completion of the course requires the participants to attend the lectures and general discussions field study and present the findings. In the evaluation and assessments participants are encouraged to prepare the term papers. This is the term paper prepared for the purpose and the contents with in it are “Human population and population change” and “Human dependence and influence in environment”. The main objective of the course is to make the participants aware with the various aspects of the human-environment interactions. The specific objectives of the course are
i) to explain the biological facts of the human evolution
ii) to explain the prehistoric culture and environment
iii) to understand the philosophical views on life, nature and environment
iv) to describe the distribution of early human beings and their occupation
v) to deduce the relationship between various society with corresponding environment
vi) to explain the environment induced socio-cultural change
vii) to describe the development- economy- environment relationship
viii) to explain the state of the general health of the people and
ix) to explain the forecast future trends in environment , economy, development and health issues
In this term paper I have included the contents with in i) human evolution and population change and ii) human dependence and influence in environment and sub-contents within these.
Unit 1 Human evolution and population change
1.1 What is life?
Different perspectives have different meanings on life. If we collect and analyze the meanings of life they can be categorized in the main three philosophical grounds. The idealism believes life in the super natural elements as the driving force e.g. ‘Brahman’ or ‘Atman’ by Hindu Philosophy, ‘Psyche’ by Plato and ‘Entelechy’ by Aristotle. They believe that the element which drives our life is impossible to experience and observe. So, it is impossible to experiment scientific measures too. Buddha says “What we think, we become. All that we are arises with our thoughts. With our thoughts we make the world’. Being the eternal nature of life continues in the various forms.
Another camp of philosophy, materialism says that there is no significance qualitative difference in between matter and biological substances. So, to rule the inorganic nature of the living things no specific laws are needed. Another influential wing of philosophy accepts life as the product of the special nature of matter which has dynamism. The specific stage of the development of the matter, they say it. According to them the hot nature is come by a special developmental stage of the matter remained in chilly, similarly some of the carbonic compounds in a special development stage gave life and continued due to its nature but changing in the course of time.
Biological overview of life.
Biologically, living things consist of substances having three special characteristics than non-living things. They are capacity of synthesis, capacity of self regulation and capacity to adapt genetically. Chemical systems capable if elaborate polymeric syntheses, directed in a special patterns by the presence of information (it self in a polymeric form), that is capable of changing to other controlled patterns at more efficient level s of environmental exploitation ( Korn and Korn, 1971).
1.2 Ways of life evolution in the earth
There are different ideas in the evolution of life in the earth. They can be grouped in the three major groups as follows.
Special creation theories: Different theories are found which believe the evolution of life by some super natural forces by the special means which can’t be repeated or tested. Among these ideas based in the idealism, Hindu philosophy explains that Brahman (essence of life in the form of thoughts) creates the ether, ether to air, air to fire, fire to water, water to earth then to soil and plants, seed then the man at last. Similar explanations are found in other forms of other idealistic ideas.
Abiogenesis: This theory of evolution believes in the composition of the required materials and originated at once by chance. They even believed that non living things also can create the living things. The Chemical Evolution theory is the most believed theory in the evolutionary theories. Accordingly, this theory believes the evolution of the things in the molecular form. Different compounds like methane, ammonia and water get synthesized and prepared amino acids (monomers). When these monomers are synthesized prepared polymers which can be replicated. This is the most important characteristic of the living things. The cellular reactions with in the living things also have similar type of proteins reactions during the fertilization process and cell divisions.
1.3 How did different life come in existence?
This question is also answered depending on the different philosophical back grounds. Idealism says as in the creation the creative forces created and differentiated the different organisms as desired or required. The idea has no any experimental or testable facts and even they don’t need to be questioned. Another theory of evolution developed by Lamarck, Lamarckism says that the variation is due to the structure, use and the environment. Darwin’s theory of evolution says it is due to natural selection which consists of the number of the offspring, struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. These elements bring changes in the organism and to be adapted with the environment changes are organized and continued. The modern Synthetic theory says it is due to gene mutation, changes in the chromosomes numbers and structures, genetic recombination, natural selection and reproductive isolation. This theory is come in existence after many un-answered questions of the traditional theories of evolution and latest scientific discoveries.
1.4 Early anthropoids: Hominids ( human beings ) are the hominoids within which all the apes, monkeys are kept. They are the branches of the old world primates. The old world primates are all Anthropoids and those anthropoids are all Primate. So the study of evolution of the anthropoids comes under the studies of the living primates. Human beings are descended from the primates. Those primates were the offspring of the ancient tree-dwelling primates. They are classified in two categories, Prosimians and Anthropoids. About 235 species of primates are found within which 175 species are in Anthropoids. The fossils of the Anthropoids are found from the Eocene epoch.
The anthropoids are of two types, Platirrhines and Catarrhines.
















PRESENT AFRICAN APES HUMANS

Hominoids are one of branches of the Catarrhines. Hominoids include all the monkeys and the humans. Beyond the Hominids (humans) the other two groups of the hominoids are lesser apes and great apes. The Gibbon and Siamangs are the lesser apes and Orangutans, Gorillas and Chimpanzees are kept in the great apes. Orangutans are believed to be separated from the Hominoids main branch from 12 million years ago. Similarly, the nearest species of the humans (Hominids) Chimpanzee was separated before 5-7 million years ago. For about last 6 million years hominids are descended through Homo habillis and Homo erectus in the same phyletic line. Now the latest human is called Homo sapiens.
1.5 Trends towards the human evolution
The process of development is continue and going similarly for centuries to come. The distinctive development may be the development of the bipedalism in the hominids. About bipedalism, an ape named later Australopithecus or early homo were the first who stood first in the southern Africa. It is found to be in a similar species called Ardipithecus ramidus about 4.4 million years ago in the Savannas, the grassland. It is marked that it made them easy to watch preys and predators. This capacity brought them near to use two freed hands as they like. They started to use tools. Hunting, walking long distance and gathering was made more efficient. Up to the time the hominids used to stay around the Eastern Africa, then only towards the southern Asia. The tool used at the time was for chopping the meat may be scavenged or hunted. The archaeologists have claimed that the stone tools and bones stuffs found in one place to guess the processing place rather than the living place. Later on around 2.5 million years ago it is found that the skull of the hominids was expanding and the pelvis of the females. The face, jaws, teeth etc reduced. So, at the same periods scientists have guessed that they have started to believe in some cultural behaviors. The Homo erectus was developed at around 1.6 years from the Homo habilis. The Homo erectus was the first hominids which was scattered all over the old world (Africa, Eurasia). Acheulian types of tools were then developed before 1.6 million years ago, which we can also see in different forms. It is seen that the Homo erectus were who first time used fire, fire made them easier to travel around the cold area. Strong evidences are not found to claim the controlling of the fires. But culture was established in their time.
Homo sapiens, the latest species among hominids are supposed to be developed after 500,000 later and from the Homo erectus. They are found to be scattered all around the old world. But they are not exactly as modern humans. Such types of the species called Homo sapiens are found at around 50,000 to 100,000 in Africa. One debate within archeologists is remained between the Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. It seems to be Neanderthals remained around Europe were later of the Homo sapiens. This explanation is based on the theory of single origin now a day most believed more than multi- original theory which was believed earlier.
1.6 Sites of the human evolution.
It is clear that the origin of the human ancestors called Homo habilis were the resident of the eastern central Africa. They used to remain there at around the 2.5 million years ago. They scattered up to the central Africa. Later on the Homo ergaster lived and crossed up to the Eastern and the Central Asia. They were followed by the Homo erectus, most influent hominid covered the old world. They developed the bi-pedals, tools, child rearing and fire. They were followed by the Homo heidebergensis, next robust hominids who colonized the Europe at around at 800,000 years ago. It is guessed that they are the nearest ancestors of the Neanderthals, humans found after ice ages. Later comes the turn of Homo sapiens who conquered the world. About the new world, the Americas they crossed at around 14,000 years ago in the ice age through Bering straits.


1.7 Population size and changes in prehistoric, historic and modern times
Around 2 million years ago, human existence started with the population of the world very few. It is guessed that before 12000 years ago, about 5 million people started cultivation. This era is started with a population of 250000. Up to industrial revolution, 1750 AD the world population was about 728 million just tripled in the 1750 years. Then similarly was added more 1.7 billions in the 200 years up to 1950 AD. Again in four decades the population was more than tripled to reach 5.3 Billion. It is projected that it will reach 9.036 Billions in 2050. It is estimated to be 11 Billions peak of the world population in the developing parts of the world.
Estimated World Population Growth through History

Year Estimated population
(In Millions) Annual percentage increase in the intervening period
10,000 BC 5
1 AD 250 0.04
1650 545 0.04
1750 728 0.29
1800 906 0.45
1850 1171 0.53
1900 1,608 0.65
1950 2,576 0.91
1970 3,698 2.09
1980 4,448 1.76
1990 5,292 1.73
2000 6,090 1.48
2050 ( projected) 9,036 0.45
(Sources; Todaro and et al, Economic development, p.233)
Unit II: Human dependence and influence in environment
Human development stages are categorized as hunting, gathering, agricultural and technological ages. Within it traditionally the ages were divided as The Stone age (50,000BC-4000BC), The Bronze age (4000BC-2000BC) and The Iron Age
(1500 BC to onwards).The later inventions and discoveries suggests the classification differently as
2.1 Paleolithic age ( Stone age , 2500,000years to 20,000 years ago)
Within this classification, the long time is divided in three groups the early stone age which is in between starting to 200,000 years ago; Middle Paleolithic age (200,000 years ago to 45,000) in which the Homo sapiens , ancient humans started some rituals like burial. The third age called the Upper Paleolithic age started from the last 45,000 years to 20,000years ago in which humans started social activities.
2.2 Mesolithic age (20,000 years to 10,000 years ago)
This age refers to the time (Holocene epoch) in which last ice age was about to finish and environment was rapidly changing.
2.3 Neolithic age (The time from 10,000 years to onwards):
The age is called technological age or blade age which was started before 9,000 years.
Earlier humans also had to adapt in the environmental changes occurred. Different natural changes were always surrounded them and due to their insufficient capacity and fully dependent nature every change became a question of survival. By about 8 million years, the shifting of the Indian plateau towards the north below the Tibetan plateau completed and the modern face of the earth remained. This shifting made East Africa’s origin of the apes and homos changed dry and cooler around Great Rift Valley. Later in the Pliocene epoch (started at 5 million years ago) the fluctuation in the temperature was increased and started the Ice age. This forced them to migrate around the world to feed and secure them. This ice age has very distinctive influence on our behaviors towards the environment too. Many preys were extinct during the period, the hunting was not remained sufficient to feed them so started agriculture and animal domestication. With the study of the changes in the environments and the challenges towards the ancient hominids we can explore the reasons why different species were evolved in a gene called homo. Populations had to be adapted in changed situations of different places in the same time. Even the ancient humans had different anatomy due to be adopted in the fluctuating temperatures like the highly populated Homo erg aster of ice age had thick skin than that of the other to be saved from the cooling more conserve heat. In the age of the H. erectus, they shifted towards the temperate area of the Eurasia. So they started to live in the shelters like caves due to cold. Later on, the learning and comfort and safety of the caves insisted them to build shelters which are ancients of our buildings of the modern time. Similarly the early human used fire for different purpose and they learned to control it kept inside caves or huts later, the hearths. It made their livelihood safer and easier. Domestication of different animals, seeds conservation in agriculture, different practices on the land use change etc had various values in the environment studies.
So, human have always adapted to their environment by adjusting their behavior. This behavior change is the key of change.
2.4 Social and cultural evolution:
2.4.1 Cultural evolution :The word culture in anthropology means all the creations and activities developed by the human beings as social rules and customs. The evolution of humans is both the physical changes and the cultural changes occurred in the humans. The physical changes occurred are those which are culturally and environmentally favored. Culture includes the technology, language and arts also. Some other animals also imitate some symbolic things but they can’t teach another or can’t be transferred to the new offspring. To transfer the learning human beings poses a large size of skull with higher amount of brain. The use of tools is a revolutionary invention which has made the history for millions of years. The invention of tools and varieties in food may be the cause of the thinner skeleton size developed before 30,000 years. The cultural evolution of last 60,000 years has caused the migration of humans all over the world. The development of transportation, fishing, foods, shelter, clothing, agriculture, weapons etc are the cultural sectors which made human beings able as well as sectors reformed due to these migrations. In the last 10,000 years animal husbandry and agriculture brought another huge change in the land use as well as surplus first time. They had time, stable residential life which made the land fertile for the urbanization as well as different civilizations. The further reformation was only possible when civilization brought revolutionary cultural changes.


2.4.2 Social evolution : The social evolution is defined with in the culture in sociological perspectives. But here I have included some features of social elements which have been developed during the evolutionary course of social development. One of the significance social evolutions seen in the homo genes is the sexual dimorphism. In the earlier species it was seen a vast difference in the physical structure of males huge than that of the females. It made them dominant and threatening on females. Later on the change in social relations with in the pairs made it possible to reduce the dominancy of the males and cooperative social relations. Another social change is seen in the prolonged infant maturity period. It gave sufficient time to develop the larger brains which was not in the apes. Pair bonding and food sharing is another peculiar development seen in the homo. It is the time spent together and sharing of the food which made possible chances to survive own offspring. The home base is another sign of the hominids which was place to collect foods and meat. It was the place where caring of the child and sick persons were taken in care. Such types of practices developed and the shelters were modified and controlled fire hearth was also installed with in the base at around 50,000 years.
2.5 Philosophical views and basis of life, nature and environment
In this part of this term paper I’m going to discuss some new parts of the philosophical grounds and explanation of their on the nature and environment. About the basis of life new scientific explanations are lighted by Miller-Urey experiment. This experiment clearly visualizes the earlier explanations done by the physical scientific ground. According to this experiment, in a specific artificial condition carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus synthesizes to give amino acid. This was the basic assumption made by the earlier scientists. And gradual evolution continued by the specific biological laws. Some of the physicists suggest even life come from the comets and continued here in the earth.
Among the idealistic philosophical grounds Hindu philosophy has two ideas Advaita Vedanta and Theistic Vedanta. The Advaita Vedanta explains the god and the earth being illusion and only one “Brahman” the idea being the supernatural force which runs god, earth as well as the life with in the earth. The next wing believes on the gods as the creatures, governor and destructor of whole the biosphere. The creation and destruction is hypothesized by the need theory. Hindus are polytheists. Some of the gods and spiritual activities are for nature and conservation oriented. Their belief in the rebirth and teach against ambition and towards satisfaction so over consumption and exploitation is prohibited in this philosophy.
In the Islam, being a monotheist philosophy the creation and evolution all goes to the god. They believe in the “Kayamat” a concept of vacuum in the future and all the roles and functions of human as related to the god’s will and permission. In the Christianity human are created and sent to the earth by the god for further evolution and development. The humans should progress and sufficient resources are waiting there to cultivate and multiply. Investment and reinvestments are promoted in the Christianity. Explorations, inventions and much more efforts are promoted by this philosophy. So, the philosophy seems to be more anthropocentric and in the nature and environment it didn’t favored earlier. Now also the philosophy accepts environment to be saved how much is beneficial for the human beings.
Buddhism seems to be more near to the scientific explanation on the life and evolution. It believes in the non violence, peace of the natural creations too. Judaism is near to the Christianity in the nature and environmental issues.
Other than religious philosophies there are some new philosophical ideas related to nature and environment. These are the issues theorized in the process of economic development due to the exploitation of the natural resources and unsolved social developmental issues. The earlier environment issues started from just managerialism to environmentalism.
It was a shifting of the management of the natural resources for same purposes and environmentalism was for the protection and conservation for the well being of the whole nature and human beings. In the discourse women’s issues were also synthesized and new explanation was evolved. It was like the nature of women and environment was both similar and the running discourses of economic and social development was not only solving the problem but was responsible for the deprivation of the both. So, they believe in the emancipation of women in the third world when environment is preserved and environment will be preserved only when women are empowered rationally. Avoidance of women and environmental issues at once will not solve the problems of development of contemporary society. This approach of environment is called eco-feminism.
For the preservation and development of the environment various responses are being functioned in all levels. They are legal, academic, social activities, political etc. The quality and permanency of these tools are always questioned. The most effective tool is supposed to be the environmental ethics. These are the personal ethics developed by culture i.e. education, religions and so on. If an individual is ethically sound than other tools are not required. This type of behavior is called responsible environmental behavior (REB). If a person is with the REB, it is hoped that no irresponsibility will be there against environment well being.

2.6 Gender and its relationship with the environment.
Gender is a social meaning and interaction of male and females in human beings. There are some distinctive differences between the physiology of males and females and the differences have important biological roles and responsibilities. For example women bear children and they cared too. They only can breast feed children. To manage such roles and responsibilities society started labor division. In the human cultural evolution such differences are shaped to discriminate women and the balanced treat is lacked with in women. This discrimination has different impacts in the environmental issues too. Some of them are illustrated here in this term paper.
a) Poverty and population
b) Social inclusion of women
c) Women’s participation in environment management
d) Maternity health care and IMR
e) HIV/AIDS and Violence against women
f) Natural resources management and women’s ownership
g) Water pollution, crisis and women
h) Sustainable development and women’s development
i) Women’s movement and achievements
j) Land and property rights etc
k) Global climate change and women etc.
These issues are debated for environment as well as nature. Some of the issues are concretizing and some are liquating. All are found to be agreed in one thing that nature
should be protected and social issues should be addressed towards the minorities and deprived segment of the population.

विद्यालय क्षेत्र सुधार कार्यक्रम र नेपाली शिक्षक
• लक्ष्मण शर्मा

वितेका केहि वर्षदेखि सरकारले शिक्षकहरुको तलब बढाउँदा पनि खुसिसंग दशैँ मान्न पाइएन भन्दा धेरैले पत्याउँदैनन्। साँचो कुरा हो, विचार गर्नुहोस, तपाईँ कार्यरत रहेको कार्यालयमा आधा कर्मचारी, कामदार सरकारले बढाएको दशैँ खर्च पेश्की सहित तलब खाने, बाँकि केहि नबढाएको र दशै खर्चबाहेक खाने र बाँकि केहि खातामा भए खाने नभए नखाने भए तपाई कसरी खुसि मनाउन सक्नुहुन्थ्यो होला ? यस वर्ष पनि, पुराना सरकारी भनिने केहि शिक्षकहरूले कर्मचारीसाथीहरूले सिंहदरवार थुनेर बढाएको बढ तलब सहित दशैँ मनाए, राहत भनिने अनुदानका शिक्षकसाथीहरूले नबढेको तलबले चित्त बुझाउनु प-यो भने नीजि श्रोतका भनिने अनिश्चित श्रोतबाट तलब खानु पर्नेहरूले चाहिँ तलब खान विद्यालयमा पैसा नभएकोले सरसापटबाट पनि दशैँ मनाउनुप-योहोला। हाम्रा सार्बजनिक विद्यालयहरुको भएको यस्तो अवस्थाको बारेमा कमै छलफल हुने गरेकोछ। नेपालमा तेह्रभन्दा बढी किसिमका शिक्षकले एकै किसिमका काम गरेर पनि विद्यालयबाट फरक फरक किसिमका पारिश्रमिक, सुबिधा पाउने गर्दछन्। केहिलाई सरकारले आफ्ना कर्मचारिलाई जस्तै गर्न चाहेको देखिन्छ, केहिलाई बाँडिचूडी दिनु भनेर विद्यालयलाई नै दिएको देखिन्छ भने बाँकि ठूलो संख्यालाई सरकारले चिन्नु नै आवश्यक ठानेको छैन। विद्यालयमा पैसा हुँदा तलब खाने त्यस्ता गुमनाम शिक्षकहरुको लगभग सत्तरीहजार ( सरकारले भने अनुसार नपूग संख्यामा रहेका) भन्दा बढी संख्या त मा वि तहसम्म नै छन होलान्।अझ विद्यालय कर्मचारी, ई.सि.डि.का कार्यकर्ता, विशेष शिक्षा, उच्च मा वि आदि तहमा रहेका मध्ये सबै जसो त्यस्तै छन्। मैले काम गर्ने विद्यालयको भागमा पनि त्यस्ता नीजि श्रोतका भनिने तर अनिश्चित श्रोतका शिक्षकहरू साथीहरू धेरै नै हुनुहन्छ। त्यसैले दशैँको मुखमा र अन्य तलब खाने बेलामा रमाइलो हुदैन। यसपाली पनि भएन।
म अहिलेसम्म कार्यरत रहेको विद्यालयलाई २०५२ सालमा समुदायले चलाइ रहेको अबस्थाबाट ४ जना माध्यमिक तहका शिक्षकको व्यवस्था गरी जम्मा १२ जना शिक्षक बनाएर जिशिकाले आफ्नो भएको भनेर सरकारी स्विकृती प्राप्त गरेको टाँचा लगाइदियो । ५ वर्ष भित्रै विद्यार्थी संख्या दुइगुणा पुग्यो। शिक्षक थप्नु परिहाल्यो, सरकारले दिएन, थप्दै गइयो। अहिले, स्विकृती पाएका बेलाको भन्दा तीनगुणाभन्दा पनि बढी विद्यार्थी होलान्। त्यसको केहि वर्ष भित्रै हामीले स्विकृती प्राप्त गरेका विद्यालयहरुले कुनै पनि खालका फि नलिनू, नि:शूल्क गर्नु भनेर सरकारले आदेश जारी गर्यो। आहा ! कति सजिलै विद्यालयहरू “नि:शुल्क” भए। सरकारले जनताको पक्षमा ऐतिहासिक काम ग-यो। गाउँलेले चन्दा, दान, देउसिरेभैलो गर्न छोडे, यसो परीक्षा शुल्क उठाएमा पनि विद्यार्थीले फि फिर्ता गर्न आन्दोलन सुरु गरिहाल्थे (हामी विद्यार्थी भएपनि गर्थ्यौ) किन भने बिभिन्न दलहरूको सरकारले विद्यालय नि:शूल्क गराएको थियो। आवश्यक पनि थियो, शिक्षालाई मौलिक अधिकारको रुपमा स्थापित गर्ने बेला आइसकेको थियो।फेरि केहि समय पछि ठूलो ठट्टा ग-यो सरकारले, हैन हैन हामीले त ख्यालख्यालमा पो नि:शूल्क भनेको त भन्दै फि लिनु फेरि भन्यो तर समय ढिलो भै सकेको थियो। के मिल्थ्यो र कसरी सकिन्थ्यो र ? तलब ख्वाउने देखि लिएर भौतिक निर्माण र शैक्षिक कार्यक्रमहरू ठप्प भए। अभिभावक भेलाले फी उठाउन सहमति गरे पनि विद्यार्थीहरूको असहमतिले उठाउन सकिँदैन। अहिलेसम्म आइपुग्दा सत्ता, पदमा (विद्यालय वा अन्यत्र) नभएकाहरूले भाषण गर्ने विषय बनेकोछ, पदमा पुग्नेहरूलाई पार लाउन गाह्रो भएकोछ, नि:शूल्क शिक्षा।
त्यसकारण १० वर्ष अघि नियुक्ती दिइएका शिक्षकहरुलाई अब ग्रेड प्रमोसन गर्नु पर्ने बेलामा सरकारी शिक्षकले खाइपाई आएको पाउने छौ भनेर दिएको वचन पनि पूरा गर्न नसक्ने भइयो। सरकारले शिक्षा निमावलीमा व्यवस्था गरे बमोजिमको विद्यार्थीसंख्या अनुसार दरवन्दी वितरण गर्छ र तपाईहरूलाई त्यसमा एडजस्ट गरौँला भन्दा भन्दै धेरै वर्ष विते आजभोलि नयाँ कुरो थाहा पाइयो। २०५६ सालमा, अब देखि सार्वजनिक विद्यालयमा दरबन्दी श्रृजना नगर्ने भनेर निर्णय गरेको रहेछ सरकारले। सम्झौता गरेको रहेछ महत्वपूर्ण दातासंग। शिक्षा नियमावली २०५९ मा विद्यार्थीसंख्या बमोजिम दरबन्दी उपलब्ध गराउने बूँदा किन राखेको थियो त्यो चाहिँ बुझ्न सकिएन। सरकारले विद्यार्थी संख्याको अनुपातमा बढी भएका दरवन्दीहरू अहिलेसम्म जिल्लागत वा विद्यालयसम्म मिलान गर्न नसकेको मात्र हैन नचाहेको पनि प्रष्टै छ। जून जिल्लामा शिक्षक दरबन्दी आवश्यकता भन्दा बढी छ, अझै त्यहि जिल्लामा बढी राहत अनुदान जाँदैछ, भने दरबन्दीको कुरा कसैले पनि नगर्नु नै जाति होला। केन्द्रबाट हुने विनियोजनको त त्यो हालत छ भने जिल्लाहरूमा त राहत अनुदान जे गरे पनि हुने जस्तो भएकोछ। फेरि समुदायबाट नै संचालन भएका र सरकारी अनुदानबाट तलब खाने शिक्षक नभएका विद्यालयलाई दिनु नै जायज हुन्छ। हाम्रा जस्ता “सरकारी” विद्यालयको त किन पालो आउँथ्यो?
शिक्षा कार्यालयतिर यसो छिरेर दरबन्दीको कुरा गर्दा जताततै समुदायद्वारा व्यवस्थापन गरेमा पाइन्छ, भनिन्छ। यसको विपक्षमा उभिनु नै हाम्रा पेशागत युनियनहरूको लगभग एउटा मात्र सहमतिको साझा सवाल हो। जोसुकैले जेसुकै भने पनि यो पेशामा रहुन्जेल हामी शिक्षकहरूले सके युनियनहरूमा कामै गर्नु पर्थ्यो, नसके पनि पेशागत सँस्थाहरूले भनेको मान्नुपर्थ्यो। तर शिक्षक युनियनहरूको असहमतिका वावजूद करिव आठहजार विद्यालय तहहरूले त्यो स्विकार गरिसकेकाछन् । यो वर्ष सरकारले थप ४००० विद्यालय तहहरूलाई समुदायमा धकेल्ने महत्वाकांक्षी कार्यक्रम लिएर आएको छ। फेरि त्यसो गर्नेहरुले पनि पाउन सक्ने भनेको त्यहि राहत दरवन्दी नामको अनुदान नै हो जसमा शिक्षकलाई स्थायी गर्ने र अरु शिक्षक सरह बनाउने कुनै लक्षण देखिदैन।
यस अवस्थामा हामी सबैले आशा गर्ने ठाउँ भनेको चूपचाप सुरु भएको यो विद्यालय क्षेत्र सुधार कार्यक्रम नै हो। चुपचाप किन भनेको भने यसको मूल दस्तावेज कहिले कसरी को कसका सहमती लिएर बने भन्ने विषयलाई कम महत्वपूर्ण मान्दा पनि सरकारले गत वर्ष नै तीन जिल्लामा पाइलटिङ गरी गत २००९ को जून महिनामा अन्तिम रूप दिइएको यो कार्यक्रमको मूल दस्तावेजमा के छ त ? चासो हुनु स्वभाविक नै हो। तर कमैलाई थाहा होला, यो दस्तावेज सरोकारवालाहरूले सजिलै अर्थ्याउन सक्ने नेपाली भाषामा उल्था समेत गरिएको छैन। चूपचाप छ।यो कार्यक्रम लागू गर्न सुधार गर्नुपर्ने कम्तिमा ४ वटामध्ये कुनै ऐन नियमावली सुधारिएकोछैन। यसको निर्माणको चरणमा शिक्षक लागायत कुनै सरोकारवालाहरूसंग छलफल र सहमती गराइएको भन्ने बुझिएकोछैन। तर प्रमुख राजनैतिक दलहरूसंग यो सुधार एजेण्डामा सहमति र सुझावका लागि पहिले नै वहस र अन्तर्कृया गरिएकाछन् थप सुझाव र धारणा निर्माणको लागि योजना बनाइएकाछन्,( सोही, पेज ६८) चाहिँ भनिएकोछ। सायद सोहि राजनैतिक दलहरू मार्फत आ-आफ्ना जनवर्गीय संगठनहरू सहमत भएर बसेका होलान्। तर पेशागत संगठन , युनियनहरू किन बोल्दैनन्। यसमा कतिपय राम्रा कुराहरू पनि छन्। त्यसको चर्चा हुँदै जाला। तर यहाँ हामीजस्ता ग्रामीण क्षेत्रमा श्रोतसाधन बिना दु:खसंग विद्यालय चलाइरहेका र सरकारको कुनै प्रगतिशिल कार्यक्रम आउला र ढुक्कसंग शिक्षकको व्यवस्थापन गरी बालबालिकाको शिक्षण प्रभावकारी बनाउँला भनी बसेका प्र.अ. वा शिक्षकहरूले खोज्ने केही बूँदाहरूमा छलफल गर्न चाहन्छु।


क) विकेन्द्रित शिक्षक छनोट र भर्ना पध्दति : कार्यक्रममा, “शिक्षकहरुको छनौट स्थानीय तहबाट हुनेछ। शिक्षा मन्त्रालयले उपलब्ध गराएको नीति निर्देशन बमोजिम लाइसेन्सप्राप्त गरेका उम्मेद्वारहरूमध्येबाट विद्यालय व्यवस्थापन समितिको ले शिक्षक छनोट गर्नेछ। शिक्षक व्यवस्थापनको मुख्यभूमिका विद्यालय व्यबस्थापन समितिको हुनेछ” भनिएकोछ( बुँदा ६.४, पेज ४७)।
उपलव्ध शैक्षिक जनशक्तिहरूमध्ये गूणस्तरीय व्यक्तिहरूलाई शिक्षण पेशामा भित्र्याउनु शिक्षामा सुधारको लागि एउटा महत्वपूर्ण रणनीति हुनसक्थ्यो तर वि. व्य. स. वा स्थानीय तहले शिक्षक छनोट र भर्ना गर्दा सानो समूहमध्येबाट छनोट हुने भएकोले र अन प्रतिस्पर्धी क्षमता राख्ने उम्मेद्वारहरू भित्र्याउने संभावना न्यून हुनेछ। सक्षमताले भन्दा स्थानियताले बढी प्रोत्साहन पाउनेछ। वि.व्य.स.ले “जागीर लाइदिएकाहरू” भन्दा त राष्ट्रीय स्तरका प्रतिस्पर्धाबाट छनोट भइ आएकाहरू नै पेशेवर हुन्थे।
ख) शिक्षकको प्रोत्साहन,विकाश र सुरक्षा:
यी सवालहरूमा शिक्षकका तालिमहरूको राम्रो व्याख्या गरिएकोछ। तर हालै ४।५ वर्षदेखि शिक्षकका विभिन्न सँस्थाहरू मार्फत मुखरित भैरहेका मागहरू र बेला बखत भएका सँझौताहरू सम्बोधन हुनसक्ने उपायलाई नजरअन्दाज गरिएकाछन्। जस्तो,
अहिले सबै शिक्षकहरूले खोजेको कम्तिमा पनि सरकारी दरबन्दीमा रहेका शिक्षकले पाएको जस्तो स्थायित्व, पेन्सन, सञ्चयकोष, बिमा, उपदान र औषधिउपचार खर्च नै हो। धेरै जसो शिक्षक समुदाय(नीजि, राहत, उ.मा.वि., कर्मचारी आदि)का मागहरू यिनकै वरिपरि घुमेका छन्। तर दस्तावेजमा कहि कतै शिक्षक स्थायी हुने लगायतका उल्लेखित कुराहरू देखिएन।नेपाली शिक्षकहरूले जीवनभरि नै ज्यालादारी र जूनसुकै बेला गुमाउनु पर्ने पेशा कै भरमा देशका लाखौँ बालवालिका पढाउनु पर्ने नै हो त ? अब पि. सि. एफ र राहतका अनुदानबाट तलब खाने शिक्षकमात्र हुने हो ?अब शिक्षक सेवा आयोग लाइसेन्स बाढ्ने निकाय मात्र हुने हो वा खारेज हुने ? यदि नेपाली शिक्षकहरूलाई स्थायी हुनसक्ने दरबन्दी कम्तिमा सन् २०१५ सम्म विद्यालयमा नपठाउने र आयोगमार्फत स्थायी नगर्ने हो भने सबैले (सरकार, दलहरू र पेशागत संघ संस्थाहरू) एकै पटक प्रष्टै भनिदिनुपर्ला। यो बारेमा दस्तावेज प्रष्ट छैन , हुनु जरूरी थियो।
ग) प्र. अ., प्राचार्यको नयाँ व्यवस्था:
यो वि.क्षे.सु.का.मा भएको अर्को व्यवस्था विद्यालयको नेतृत्वमा नयाँ ढंगको प्र. अ. व्यवस्था गर्ने भन्ने हो। विद्यालयमा प्र.अ.को छुट्टै दरवन्दीको व्यवस्था गरी जि शि का ले तयार गरेको निर्देशिका बमोजिमको प्र. अ. करारमा नियूक्त गर्ने (वि.क्षे.सु.का., पेज २८) कुरा धेरै विकल्पहरूमध्येकै एउटा हो। यहि स्पिरिट बमोजिम काम भएमा पक्कै पनि विद्यालयमा नयाँ पुस्ताको गतिशिल नेतृत्व स्थापित हुन सक्छ र नयाँपन आउने आशा गर्न सकिन्छ। तर कार्यान्वयनका तहसम्म पुग्दा हाम्रा नीति, नियम र कार्यक्रमहरू कति फितला हुन्छन् भन्ने कुरा त पँचायतकालमा नै नियमले विदा गरिसकेका अण्डरमेट्रिक शिक्षकहरू अहिलेसम्म कार्यरत रहनु वा नक्कली प्रमाणपत्रधारीहरूको छानविनले पार नपाउनु जस्तै हुने संभावना पनि कम छैन। फेरि समुदायलाई सबै कुरामा अधिकारसम्मत बनाउँदै लाने भनेर शिक्षक भर्नासम्म पनि विद्यालयभित्रको प्राविधिक क्षेत्रमा सामाजिक हस्तक्षेप निम्त्याइसकेपछि,शिक्षक छान्न सक्नेहरूलाई प्र.अ.छान्न किन नदिने हो ? प्रष्ट छैन।

घ) विद्यालय संचालन खर्च कसरी जुटाउने ?:
विद्यालय व्यवस्थापन भित्रको सबभन्दा महत्वपूर्ण कुरा कसरी खर्च जुटाउने भन्ने नै हो। स्थानिय स्रोतसाधन नभएका ठाउँमा पनि बालबालिका छन्। विद्यालयले केहि श्रोत संकलन गर्न सक्ने सम्भावना नि:शुल्क शिक्षाको नाराले समाप्त पारिसकेकोछ। विद्यार्थी संख्या र विषय अनुसार शिक्षकको संख्या र गुणस्तरको ग्यारेण्टी कहिले सम्म हुने, त्यसको लागि लाग्ने खर्च कसरि पु-याउने ? भौतिक निर्माण, शैक्षिक खर्चहरू कसरी धान्ने ? यो बारेमा वि.क्षे.सु.का.ले प्रष्ट केहि भनेन। शिक्षालाई मौलिक अधिकार भनेको त निर्वाध रुपमा सबै बालबालिका स्तरीय शिक्षा पाउने हो नि। त्यसका लागि सबै चाँजो पाँजो राज्यले मिलाउने हो। खै त तयारी ? शिक्षामा मौलिक अधिकार भनेको चाहिएका स्थानमा विद्यालय खोल्न पाउने अधिकार मात्र त हैन।
ङ) स्थानीय सरकारको अनुपस्थिती:
राष्ट्रमा तरल र संक्रमणकालिन राजनैतिक अवस्था रहेको यो बेला विकेन्द्रिकरणको भावना बोकेको कार्यक्रम आएकोछ। सबैकुरा ठिकठाक भएको जस्तो गरी स्थानीय निकायको धेरै नै भर परिएकोछ। तर अहिले निर्वाचित निकाय नहुनाले गा.शि. समितिले समेत काम गर्न गाह्रो परेकोछ। निकट भविष्यमा नै स्थानीय निकायको चुनाव भैहाल्ने परिस्थिति पनि छैन। त्यसैले स्थानीय सरकारको भर पर्दा कार्यक्रमको दस्तावेज पढ्न चाहीँ लायकको तर कार्यान्वयनमा प्रभावकारी बनाउन चुनौतिपूर्ण देखिन्छ।
निष्कर्ष: हतारमा ल्याइएको यो कार्यक्रमले न त शिक्षाका सरोकारवालाहरूको सहमति (जून यो राजनैतिक संणक्रमण वा तरल अवस्थामा उपयुक्त हुन सक्थ्यो) प्राप्त गरी तिनका अपनत्व विकाश गराउन जाँगर चलाएको छ न त सँबन्धित ऐन कानूनहरू सुधार गर्न भ्याएको देखिन्छ। पाईलटिङको अनुभवहरूसमेत कतै समावेश भएको महशूस गर्न सकिन्न। सरकार शिक्षक समुदायलाई पेलेर जान सकिन्छ भन्ने मूडमा देखिन्छ भने शिक्षक समुदाय टूटफूट र अति राजनीतिकरणबाट आक्रान्त देखिन्छ। शिक्षक समुदायहरू पनि यो विषयमा छलफल गर्न एकदिन समय निकाल्न भ्याएका देखिन्नन्। यसले भविष्यमा शिक्षक र सरकार बीच भिडन्त निम्त्याउन सक्छ।
सात वर्ष ( ई.सं.२००९-२०१५) भित्र करिब ३ खरब ( ४.०४ बिलियन यु.एस. डलर) रुपैयाँ खर्च गर्ने महत्वाँकाक्षी लक्ष राखेको यो कार्यक्रमका लागि एक चौथाई खर्च विदेशी दाताहरूबाट प्राप्त गर्ने आशा राखिएको रहेछ। योजनाको चरण अति प्राविधिक तर सफलताको लागि सामाजिक सहभागिता खोज्ने खालका कार्यक्रमहरू भएकोले बेलैमा सरोकारवालाहरूसंग सघन छलफल सुरु गर्नुको विकल्प छैन। स्थानीय निकायको अभाव, राजनैतिक तरलता र इच्छा शक्तिको अभाव, कार्यान्वयनमा आइलाग्ने समस्याहरू हल गर्ने उदाशिनता र असक्षमता आदिले यो कार्यक्रमलाई पनि “हात्ती आयो हात्ती आयो फूस्सा” बनाउन सक्छ। त्यसो नभए शिक्षा क्षेत्रमा जाति हुने थियो।